NaimExplain

A better understanding of the digestive system developed. What did this mean? People gradually stopped believing disease was caused by eating the wrong things

Which new theory was published by William Harvey, an English scientist? In 1628, a new theory was published in Britain, which suggested that blood circulated around the body instead of being made in the liver, as taught by Galen

In 1546, what new text theorised that disease was caused by seeds spread in the air On Contagion

In the 16th century, who was the Theory of the Four Humours rejected by? Some radical physicians. Disease was seen as something separate from the body, which needed to be attacked. New chemical treatments started to appear, influenced by the increasing popularity of alchemy.

What was alchemy? An early form of chemistry. Alchemists tried to turn one material into another. Mostly, they were trying to discover a way of making gold.

Some people came up with new ideas about the causes of disease and illness. They included new ideas based on _______ alchemy and new discoveries about the body

What was there still a widespread belief in, and what were the limits of this? Miasmata as a cause of humoural imbalance and disease. A miasma could be the product of rotten vegetables, decaying bodies of humans or animals, excrement or any swampy, smelly, dirty place. However, even this didn't provide a satisfactory explanation for the spread of diseases when people took such care to avoid miasma.

Which diseases couldn't be easily explained by the Theory of the Four Humours? (They affected everybody in the same way and weren't cured by traditional humoural treatments, like blood-letting and purging) Epidemics of the plague and other killer diseases, such as smallpox, the Great Pox (syphilis) and sweating sickness

What did the general population of Europe want? Better answers to the questions about what caused disease

However, all across Europe, enormous shifts were taking place in other areas of daily life (i.e. not medicine). Give three examples. Because of these changes, medical knowledge grew with the changing attitudes of ordinary people. -beautiful art was being created in new styles and with new techniques -beliefs were changing, with new forms of Christianity and a more secular society developing -understanding of the surrounding world was increasing with scientific discoveries

What were people who fell ill during the period 1500 to 1700 likely to believe? The same thing about the cause of their illness as their medieval ancestors. Very little really changed in the practice of medicine during this period.

Three comments of continuity surrounding the causes of disease and illness, 1)We still rely on remedies and cures from earlier times 2)We still believe that miasma causes disease 3)The practice of medicine is the same, even though ideas about medicine are changing

Three comments of change surrounding the causes of disease and illness, 1)The Theory of the Four Humours can't be used to explain certain diseases anymore 2)We are more curious about the world, so there are lots of new ideas about the causes of disease and illness 3)Now, many scientists and great thinkers want to better understand the world around them

Identify who might benefit from multivitamins, mineral supplements and identify guidelines for selecting supplements. People who have nutrient deficiencies Pregnant or lactating women Newborns Health that limits food intake or certain foods-illness/allergy Elderly Strict vegetarians Alcoholics  People with AIDS

Describe how to minimize nutrient losses during food storage and preparation. Cooking Heat Air Light Acidity Freezing- not much loss Depleted soil-NOT a major concern

Identify the strengths and limitations of vegetarian and meat-containing diets. 1. Both can lack nutrients if not well planned. 2. Both can be healthy, too. 3. Look at OVERALL health.

Complications of not following a gluten free diet for celiac people: 1. Bone disease (Calcium and Vitamin D not absorbed) 2. Intestinal cancers 3. Anemia (Iron not absorbed) 4. Low blood glucose levels 5. Higher rates of miscarriages and infertility

Describe celiac disease, including what happens in the digestive tract, the consequences, how it is diagnosed, and what foods need to be avoided. -An autoimmune disorder which is when you eat gluten (protein found in wheat, barley, rye, and sometimes oats), your microvilli are flattened and damaged so you can't absorb your food/ nutrients in the food -How diagnosed- tissue samples, blood test, GOLD STANDARD IS BIOPSY -Foods to avoid- all gluten sources (wheat, barley, rye) - Celiac symptoms: 1. GI: Bloating, gas, foul-smelling stool, nausea, etc. 2. Skin: Dermatitis, itchy rash 3. Other: a. Unexplained weight loss (b/c can't absorb nutrients/calories) b. Depression c. Tired/fatigued d. Hair loss (b/c no nutrients absorbed)

Describe the consequences of consuming too much protein. Insufficient evidence for UL Depends on SOURCE of protein (EX: Many are high in fat) Kidney Disease (increased workload on kidneys) Bone loss (purified protein-lose Calcium in urine) Heart disease (Esp from high fat sources of protein) Cancer (Esp from high fat sources of protein such as red meat, hot dogs, pepperoni)

Describe the consequences of consuming too little protein. Too little:Acute protein malnutrition (bulging stomach aka edema) Long term protein malnutrition (no muscle on body)  Malnutrition Slow growth Impaired immune system Impaired nutrient absorption Impaired brain and kidney function (organs made of protein-start to deteriorate)

State the AMDR for protein. Calculate an individual's recommended protein intake (DRI). -10-35% of diet -For adults, the DRI protein recommendation is 0.8 g per kilogram of body weight. Divide Lbs by 2.2 to get kilograms then multiply by .8 to get protein recommendation (grams)

Characterize foods in terms of protein amount and quality and also identify proteins that are complementary. -High quality= animal products- Beef, poultry and other foods that are common within the protein foods group provide the highest amount of protein (the most protein nutrient dense). -high quality proteins provide all essential aa in proportions that the body needs -Medium quality=legumes -Low quality=plant foods; does not provide all essential aa --Dairy also provides some protein as well.

Explain nitrogen balance. 1. Neutral: input=output (protein you eat equal to nitrogen you lose) 2. Positive: output<input (body using protein to build muscle rather than releasing, aka you're growing, infants, pregnant, children) 3. Negative: REALLY SICK PEOPLE or astronauts

Describe the structure of proteins and explain why adequate amounts of all the essential amino acids are required for protein synthesis. Structure: Amino acids (an amine group, acid group, and side chain all attached by a carbon backbone) are attached to each other by peptide bonds, forming a long chain that folds on itself. The body produces some amino acids to form this chain, but we must ingest others (the essentials) to have all the right ingredients for a complete protein.

Identify the recommendations for fat intake from the DGA, USDA, and the AMDR. USDA: 30% of your calories from fat. DGA: Consume less that 10% of calories per day from saturated fats AMDR: 20-35%

Describe lipid absorption Bile shuttles lipids across watery mucus layer to waiting absorptive surface on cells of intestinal villi. The cells then extract the lipid. Bile may be absorbed and reused by the body, or it can flow back into intestinal contents and exit with feces. - up to 98% of fats consumed are absorbed. Very little fat is excreted. Process of fat digestion takes time.

Describe lipid digestion In the mouth and stomach: Little fat digestion takes places In the Small Intestine: Digestive enzymes accomplish most fat digestion (in small intestine). There, bile emulsifies fat, making it available for enzyme action. The enzymes cleave triglycerides into three fatty acids, glycerol, and monoglycerides. The Intestinal Lining: The parts are absorbed by the intestinal villi. Glycerol and short-chain fatty acids enter directly into the bloodstream. The cells of the intestinal lining convert large lipid fragments, such as monoglycerides and long-chain fatty-acids, back into triglycerides and combine them with protein, forming chylomicrons (a type of lipoprotein) that travel in the lymph vessels to the bloodstream. In the large intestine: A small amount of cholesterol trapped in fiber exits with the feces.

What is hydrogenation? The process of adding hydrogen to unsaturated fatty acids making them more saturated and thereby more solid at room temperature.

What are the essential fatty acids and what food sources contain them? Omega-3 and Omega-6 & Omega-9 Food Sources for Omega-3: Flaxseed oil, walnuts, pumpkin seeds, Brazil nuts, some dark leafy greens, salmon, mackerel, sardines, anchovies, albacore tuna Food Sources for Omega-6: Flaxseed oil, seeds, pine nuts, pistachio nuts, olive oil, olives, chicken Food Sources for Omega-9: Olive oil, avocados, almonds, peanuts, sesame oil, pecans, pistachio nuts, cashews, hazelnuts, macadamia nuts

What are the differences between LDL and HDL cholesterol? LDL: carry cholesterol from the liver to tissues in the body. HDL: carry excess cholesterol from the body's tissues back to the liver.

What is a lipoprotein and what are some examples of lipoproteins? complex particles consisting of proteins and fats that circulate in the bloodstream. The chief purpose of lipoproteins is to transport fats -- mainly cholesterol and triglycerides.Examples: LDL (low density lipoproteins) and HDL (high density lipoproteins

What type of fatty acids are reassembled into a new triglyceride and packed with proteins and cholesterol to form a chylomicron? glycerol

What enzyme is involved in initial lipid digestion that breaks triglycerides into monoglycerides, fatty acids and glycerol? lipase

What are phospholipids and what are their roles in the body? phospholipids are similar to fats, except they contain a phosphorous group and two fatty acids instead of three. Phospholipids form the outer cell membrane and help the cell maintain its internal structures

Where do we store fat in the body? accumulates beneath your skin, in certain specific areas inside your body, and in your muscles

What is the storage form of a fatty acid? triacylglycerols

What are examples of saturated fat and unsaturated fat? Foods with saturated fats: found inmeat, butter, milk, and cheese, and in coconut oil, palm oil, and cocoa butter. Foods with unsaturated fats: nuts, vegetable oils, and fish

What is the difference between a saturated fat and an unsaturated fat? Saturated fats: those that become hard at room temperature. They are found mostly in animal-based foods Unsaturated fats: a fat or fatty acid in which there is one or more double bond in the fatty acid chain; liquid at room temperature

What is the structure of triglyceride? Glycerol is a three-carbon molecule with three hydroxyl groups on them.

What are the four different types of lipids? fatty acids, glycerides, complex lipids, non glycerides

What are the purposes/functions of fats in the body? Fats main function is to provide energy. Fats also help in forming structural material of cells and tissues They also carry the fats-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K into the body and help in the absorption of these vitamins in the intestines

What percentage of daily calories should come from carbohydrates? 45-65%

What is hypoglycemia and how is it treated? occurs when blood sugar is to LOW. Treated by checking glucose levels If the level is below 70 mg/dL, eat at quick-fix food like a little honey, hard candy, milk etc. recheck levels and consume more if still low

What is gestational diabetes? develops during pregnancy (gestation); causes high blood sugar that can affect your pregnancy and your baby's health

What are the treatments for Type I and Type II diabetes? Type I: Taking insulin Exercising regularly and maintaining a healthy weight Eating healthy foods Monitoring blood sugar Type II: Healthy lifestyle choices — including diet, exercise and weight control — provide the foundation for managing type 2 diabetes. However, one may need medications to achieve target blood sugar (glucose) levels

What are the symptoms of Type I and Type II diabetes? Type 1 Diabetes •Frequent urination •Unusual thirst •Extreme hunger •Unusual weight loss •Extreme fatigue and Irritability Type 2 Diabetes •Any of the type 1 symptoms •Frequent infections •Blurred vision •Cuts/bruises that are slow to heal •Tingling/numbness in the hands/feet •Recurring skin, gum, or bladder infections

What are the differences between Type I and Type II diabetes? Type I: usually diagnosed in children and young adults, and was previously known as juvenile diabetes. In type 1 diabetes, the body does not produce insulin Type II: the most common form of diabetes; either the body does not produce enough insulin or the cells ignore the insulin

What hormones are involved in regulating blood sugar? insulin and glucagon

How many grams of carbohydrates are needed per day to have a protein-sparing effect? The protein sparing effect conserves protein for muscle tissue by using alternate sources of energy, such as carbohydrates, fatty tissues and dietary fats To spare protein and avoid ketosis, you need 50 to 100 g of carbohydrate per day

What enzymes are involved in carbohydrate digestion? amylase, pancreatic amylase, lactase, maltase and sucrase

What form must CHO be in to be absorbed? monosaccharides

What is the process of digestion and absorption of carbohydrates? 1) chewing with saliva uses amylase to help break down. 2) moves to stomach but amylase stops working here. 3) moves to small intestine where pancreatic amylase continues breaking down long saccharide chains from complex carbohydrates into disaccharides, or dual-molecule sugars such as sucrose. Additional enzymes -- lactase, maltase and sucrase -- then break disaccharides down into monosaccharides, or single molecule sugars such as glucose. 4) Then the monosaccharides are absorbed by the liver and stored as fuel to be used by the body

What is the DRI for fiber for gender and age groups? Males age 9-13 = 31g/d; 14-50 = 38g/d; 50 - >70 = 30g/d Females age 9-18 = 26 g/d; 19-50 = 25g/d; 50 - >70 = 21g/d Pregnant Women t = 28g/d Breastfeeding women = 29g/d

What are the benefits of eating fiber in the diet? Soluble fiber helps to lower cholesterol while in soluble fiber helps relieve constipation.

What is fiber? Carbohydrates that cannot be digested. Fiber is found in the plants we eat for food — fruits, vegetables, grains, and legumes. Soluable fiber helps to lower cholesterol while in soluble fiber helps relieve constipation.

What are the complex carbohydrates? Complex carbohydrates are chains of three or more single sugar molecules linked together. Complex carbohydrates should supply about half the calories in your diet. Come from legumes, vegetables, breads, pasta and cereals.

What are disaccharides? Any of a class of sugars, including lactose (milk sugar) and sucrose (common table sugar), that are composed of two monosaccharides.

What are monosaccharides? Any of several carbohydrates, such as tetroses, pentoses, and hexoses, that cannot be broken down to simpler sugars by hydrolysis. Also called simple sugar.

What are the simplest carbohydrates? monosaccharides glucose, fructose and galactose are among the most common simple sugars

What are the causes of gallstones? Gallstones form when liquid stored in the gallbladder hardens into pieces of stone-like material. The stones tend to develop in people who have liver cirrhosis, biliary tract infections, or hereditary blood disorders—such as sickle cell anemia—in which the liver makes too much bilirubin.

How can one treat constipation? Eat a high-fiber diet, exercise regularly, drink plenty of water and other fluids, set aside sufficient time to allow undisturbed visits to the toilet. And don't ignore the urge to have a bowel movement. If those don't work, you can use a laxative or stool softener.

Where is fat stored? Fat is stored all over the body in fat cells called adipocytes.

Where are carbohydrates stored? Your body stores carbs in the form of glycogen in your liver and muscles

What are the energy storage systems in the human body? ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) CP (Creatine phosphate) Glycogen Fat Protein

In the digestive process, what occurs in the colon and what nutrients are digest or absorbed in the colon? It extends from the cecum up the right side of the abdomen, across the upper abdomen, and then down the left side of the abdomen, finally connecting to the rectum. The colon has three parts: the ascending colon; the transverse colon, which absorb fluids and salts; and the descending colon, which holds the resulting waste. Bacteria in the colon help to digest the remaining food products

In the digestive process, what occurs in the small intestine and what nutrients are digested or absorbed in the small intestine? 90% of the digestion and absorption of food occurs here. Proteins, peptides and amino acids are acted upon by enzymes such as trypsin and chymotrypsin, breaking them down into smaller peptides. Lipases, helped by bile salts, act on fats and lipids, breaking them down into free fatty acids and monoglycerides. Carbohydrates are broken down to simple sugars and monosaccharides like glucose.Once broken down the nutrients are absorbed by the inner walls of the small intestine into the blood stream. Nutrients are absorbed by processes of simple/passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, primary active transport, or secondary active transport

In the digestive process, what occurs in the pyloric sphincter and what nutrients are digested or absorbed in the pyloric sphincter? located at the base of the stomach and is the contracting ring of muscle which guards the entrance to the small intestine. It keeps the stomach shut at the far end so that it has a chance to digest proteins, then it opens and allows the contents of the stomach, now called chyme, to pass through the pyloric sphincter and enter the small intestine. No nutrients are absorbed here.

In the digestive process, what occurs in the stomach and what nutrients are digest or absorbed in the stomach? The stomach muscles churn and mix the food with acids and enzymes, breaking it into much smaller, digestible pieces. Lingual lipase, pepsin, gastric lipase and chymosin are the four enzymes at work in the stomach

In the digestive process, what occurs in the esophagus and what nutrients are digested or absorbed in the esophagus? Contractions called peristalsis move food through the esophogus. No nutrients are absorbed here. The food passes through the esophogial sphincter which acts as a door to the stomach and keeps the food in the stomach.

In the digestive process, what occurs in the mouth and what nutrients are digest or absorbed in the mouth? Salivary amylase breaks starch (a polysaccharide) down to maltose (a disaccharide). Glucose is absorbed inthe mouth. Mucins (mucous) lubricate and help hold chewed food together in a clump called a bolus. The tongue contains chemical receptors in structures called taste buds. The tongue is muscular and can move food. It pushes food to back where it is swallowed.

 When do the adolescent sleep patterns tend to shift back? They shift back to an adult pattern around 19.5 years old for females and 21 years for males. Most adults need about 8 hours per night.

Explain adolescent sleep/wake cycles. People tend to become night owls during their teenage years, with their sleep/wake pattern shifting towards the evening (phase delay). Teens need slightly more sleep (9-10 hrs) to function at their best. This suggests that the shift in sleep patterns is biological and normal.

 How is stage 3 and 4 Sleep deprivation linked with growth? Brain is less active and body's metabolism is lower during NREM. This could provide an opportunity for brain cells to be repaired and its waste products to be replaced. Growth hormone is also released. It has been suggested that both REM and NREM are involved in growth and restoration.

 How is REM linked with less protein synthesis in the brain? Studies have shown a greater rate of protein synthesis during REM compared to NREM. These proteins promote the growth of the nervous system (incl brain) and may replenish the brain. Newborns spend about 50% of the sleep in REM, a time when the brain rapidly grows. This decreases to about 20% in adulthood and reflects a decrease in the rate of development. Cause of increase in protein synthesis is unclear, some say the increased blood flow to the brain during REM should actually prevent it.

 How is REM linked with mood disturbances? REM sleep interrupts the release of some neurotransmitters (eg norepinephrine) and this might allow the brain receptors to recover and become more sensitive to their release (more likely to react) after a break. Such neurotransmitters are likely to affect mood and learning. Being deprived may lead to mood disturbances such as grumpiness, irritability and sadness.

How is REM sleep linked with memory and learning problems? Many psychologists believe that the high level of brain activity during REM sleep helps out memories by allowing newly learnt information to be consolidated (transferred) into long term memory. This leads to the idea that not getting enough REM sleep will cause memory problems. It has been proven there is no link (idea is controversial).

It has been suggested that REM and NREM are critical for? REM sleep is more critical for psychological well-being.  NREM is more critical for physiological well-being.  Other psychologists argue against this idea.

 Why are we more susceptible to colds in the lead-up to exams? Lack of sleep increases the levels of cortisol, a stress-related hormone that interferes with immune functioning. After several days of partial sleep deprivation there will be an effect on immunity.

There is increasing evidence that chronic sleep deprivation is linked to serious conditions including Depression Hypertension Heart disease Diabetes Heartburn Obesity Some cancers Anxiety disorders Sleep disorders (insomnia) Accelerated ageing process

 Physiological effects of partial sleep deprivation Slower physical reflexes Hand tremors Droopy eyelids Difficulty in focusing eyes Heightened sensitivity to pain Headaches Lower energy levels

Psychological effects of partial sleep deprivation: Cognitive difficulties: Trouble with attention, concentration, info processing, thinking and reasoning, poor decision making, memory, creativity, perceptual distortions  Affective disturbances: Mood affected, fav activities seem boring, no motivation, fatigue  Behavioral difficulties: Slow performance, clumsiness, risk-taking behaviour, problems with automatic processes

 How dangerous is sleep deprivation while driving? Adelaide researchers found that a driver who has been awake for 17 hours has the same risk of having a car accident as someone with a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.05 and is twice as likely to have a car accident as a driver with a BAC of 0.00. 24 hours without sleep is equivalent to a BAC of 0.1, making it 7 times more likely for a crash to occur.

 What is partial sleep deprivation? Having some sleep in a 24 hour period but not getting enough to meet your needs.

 Explain how genetics affects the number of hours of sleep needed. Surveys of twins in Aus and Finland found that identical twins tend to have similar sleep patterns than fraternal. Some studies suggest that females tend to need more sleep than males and therefore are more likely to be sleep deprived.

 Explain how lifestyle affects the number of hours of sleep needed. For instance, working day or night shifts, sleeping in quiet or noisy places, leading an active versus inactive lifestyle, and having a stressful versus lowkey way of life all influence our individual need for sleep. We tend to sleep slightly longer in winter than summer, and some culture enjoy an early afternoon nap (siesta). Some get up early everyday, others sleep in on weekends. People tend to alter their sleep routines as responsibilities, relationships and stressors change with age.

Explain how age affects the number of hours of sleep needed. As a guide, most teenagers need 9-10 hours per night. A young child needs more and an adult les to perform at their best.

 How much sleep does each person need? There are no hard and fast rules about the exact amount of sleep we need. Sleep needs vary between individuals and depend on a number of factors such as age, lifestyle and genetics.

Compare the processes of fermentation and cellular respiration. Fermentation is a catabolic process that makes a limited amount of ATP from glucose without an ETC and that produces a characteristic end product such as lactic acid. Cellular respiration is the catabolic pathways or aerobic and anaerobic respiration, which break down organic molecules and uses an ETC for the production of ATP.

Explain why fermentation is necessary. Fermentation is necessary because it regenerates NAD+ so that glycolysis can make 2 ATP.

Summarize the net ATP yield from the oxidation of a glucose molecule by constructing an ATP ledger. In eukaryotic cells, the theoretical maximum yield of ATP generated per glucose is 36 to 38, depending on how the 2 NADH generated in the cytoplasm during glycolysis enter the mitochondria and whether the resulting yield is 2 or 3 ATP per NADH.

Explain how membrane structure is related to membrane function in chemiosmosis. In order for chemiosmosis to work properly you need to build up a high concentration of H+ ions so they can cascade down the gradient to fuel the production of ATP. The double membrane allows a space to be created so these ions can be placed and accumulated for use in the process.

Describe the process of chemiosmosis. Chemiosmosis is the process in which energy stored in the form of a hydrogen ion gradient across a membrane is used to drive cellular work.

Explain how the exergonic "slide" of electrons down the electron transport chain is coupled to the endergonic production of ATP by chemiosmosis. As electrons slide down the ETC, energy is released. This energy is used by ATP synthase to create ATP. Energy is needed to produce ATP.

Describe the cellular regions where glycolysis, the krebs cycle, and the ETC occur. Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol, which begins the degradation process by breaking down glucose into two molecules of a compound called pyruvate. The Krebs cycle occurs in the matrix of the mitochondrion. The electron transport chain occurs in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion.

Describe the role of NAD+ and the electron transport chain during respiration. The role of NAD+ during respiration is to function as an oxidizing agent during respiration. The role of the electron transport chain is to break the fall of electrons to oxygen into several energy-releasing steps.

Explain why organic molecules that have an abundance of hydrogen are excellent cellular fuels. Organic molecules that have an abundance of hydrogen are excellent cellular fuels because their bonds are a source of "hilltop" electrons, whose energy may be released as these electrons "fall" down an energy gradient when they are transferred to oxygen.

Explain how redox reactions are involved in energy exchanges. Redox reactions are involved in energy exchanges by transferring electrons through oxidation and reduction.

Explain how ATP is recycled in cells. ATP is recycled in cells by releasing a phosphate (creating ADP- di phosphate) to release energy. Vice versa, ADP can pick up a phosphate and become ATP, storing the energy in the bond that locks the new phosphate on. When the cell needs energy, it takes the ATP, converts it to a ADP and phosphate and uses the energy. Rather than disregarding the ADP and phosphate, they travel back to the mitochondria where they are recycled in respiration to produce another ATP

Describe the summary equation for cellular respiration. The summary equation for cellular respiration is C6H12O6 + 6 O2 > 6 CO2 + 6 H2O. The glucose produces pyruvate, 2 ATP, and 2 NADH.

How can a reaction with a positive standard free energy be induced to convert substrate into product? What two factors determine the direction of a reaction? Can use energy (ATP) to move the reaction towards products with positive free energy. The direction of the reaction is determined by the free energy change and the concentrations of reactants and products.

If a reaction has a negative standard free energy what does that tell us about the relative concentration of a substrate and product at equilibrium? What if the standard free energy is neutral or positive? Negative free energy favors product formation. Reaction with positive favors reactant formation. Neutral free energy yields equal amounts of substrate and products.

How is the standard free energy change of a reaction related to the equilibrium constant? Both are determined by the energy levels of the substrate and product.

What two factors determine the overall free energy change of a reaction? The difference in energy levels between a substrate and product equals the free energy of the reaction.

What is the free energy of a reaction and how does it differ from standard free energy? Free energy is the amount of energy released or consumed by a reaction. standard free energy measures the energy released or consumed by a reaction when all substrates are present at 1M concentration under normal conditions.

Do enzymes change the energy of activation of a reaction? Why or why not? Enzymes lower the activation energy for reactions, allowing the reaction to speed up.

Do enzymes change in equilibrium constant of a reaction? Why or why not? NO!! Enzymes do not bind and do not alter the reaction, therefore it is the same.

On a plot comparing enzyme vs non-enzyme reactions the enzyme reaction reaches a plateau sooner than the non-enzyme reaction but they eventually reach the same concentration of product. Why does this occur. Enzymes speed up the reaction rates, but do not change the reaction equilibrium.

What is FMN and how does it differ from FAD? Flavin mononucleotide and they are recognized by different enzymes.

What is the function of FAD/FADH2? What is the vitamin component of FAD? What role does the isoalloxazine component play in enzymatic reactions? What does the rest of the molecule do? FAD is reduced to FADH2. Constitutes one of the B vitamins. Isoalloxazine ring is involved in catalysis. Nitrogen atoms contain extra protons.

What is the relationship between NADH and NADPH? How does the change in structure from NADH to NADPH effect the function of the coenzyme? NADPH has an additional phosphomonoester in the ribose ring.

What is the function of the adenine, ribose and phosphate components of NAD+/NADH? Serve to place the remaining component, nicotinamide ring into the correct location and orientation in the active site enzyme.

What is the vitamin component of NAD+/NADH and what role does it play in the function of the coenzyme? niacin. helps either accept ro donate protons. NAD/NADH have part of structure derived from vitamin. Most of it is involved in binding and not catalytic activity.

How are NAD+ and NADH related, and what role does each of them play in oxidation-reduction reactions? NAD+ accept 2 electrons and NADH donates 2 electrons. It typically accepts electrons.

Why are vitamins needed in the synthesis of coenzymes and what role do they often play in coenzyme function? Vitamins are nutritional requirement since the organism is unable to biosynthesize an adequate amount of its own use. Needed because most coenzymes have a vitamin component as part of their structure and are the site of catalysis of the cofactor (often the site of oxidation and reduction of cofactors).

What are the two common inorganic product of ATP hydrolysis, and how do these two products differ in the amount of energy they supply to enzyme reactions? AMP + PPi. The release of pyrophosphate gives more energy to the system.

What are phosphoanhydride and phosphoester bonds, and which of these is used to energize enzyme reactions? phosphoanhydride bonds are two terminal phosphates linked by alpha phosphate that releases 7.3kcal per mole. phosphoester bond and this releases less energy upon hydrolysis.

What is ATP and how is it used to store and transfer energy in living cells? ATP is a nucleotide cofactor that contains an adenine base, ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups. Hydrolysis of phosphate bonds releases high amounts of energy.

What roles do metal ions play as cofactors in enzyme reactions? participate in oxidation-reduction reactions. help transfer other organic functional groups and promote reactivity of other groups in the enzymes active site through electrostatic effects.

What are the coenzymes and how do they participate in enzyme reactions? Coenzymes are a non-protein compound that is necessary for the functioning of an enzyme. May appear as a substrate and/or product.