Now assume that the particular cause-and-effect relationship that you are interested in is X causes Y. What are the names for the other two possibilities?

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Now assume that the particular cause-and-effect relationship that you are interested in is X causes Y. What are the names for the other two possibilities?



Answer: If you are interested in whether X causes Y, then the possibility that Y causes X, instead (aka "reversed causation"), illustrates the "directionality problem" and the possibility that Z causes both X & Y illustrates the "third-variable problem."

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